The twelve tribes of Israel are the descendants of the Jacob’s twelve sons: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, and Benjamin. Jacob, whose name was changed to Israel (Genesis 32:28; 49:2), blessed his twelve sons in Genesis 49. The order in which spoke of them is followed below.
Although there were twelve sons, thirteen different tribes are referenced in Scripture because Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, were adopted and blessed by Jacob in Genesis 48:5. So, instead of speaking about a “tribe of Joseph,” the Bible more often speaks of the tribes of Manasseh and Ephraim. There are, however, occasions when the tribe of Joseph is referenced, such as Ezekiel 47:13 and Revelation 7:8.
Tribal heritage was important in ancient Israel. Examples in the New Testament would include Jesus, whose genealogy is given in Matthew 1, and the apostle Paul, who mentions that he is of the tribe of Benjamin. Even today in modern Israel, there are many Jews who take pride in identifying their family lineage and which tribe they belong to.
REUBEN
Tribe descended from Reuben, the eldest of Jacob’s sons (Genesis 29:32). The tribe of Reuben usually receives the place of honor in lists of the tribes, being named first (Numbers 13:4). Similarly, in lists of the two and a half tribes residing east of the Jordan, Reuben is always mentioned first (Joshua 1:12), though Gad seems to have held a larger portion of land.
Because of the sin of Reuben (Genesis 35:22), his father prophesied that his preeminence among his brothers would disappear (Genesis 49:4). In spite of the prayer of Deuteronomy 33:6, this disaster did overtake the tribe in later years. In desert days, Reuben’s tribal chief appears with all the others (Numbers 1:5), and a spy goes forth from Reuben as with the other tribes (Genesis 13:4). Reuben has his special place in camping and marching (2:10). Only the spies of Ephraim (Joshua) and Judah (Caleb) are faithful (14:6), but Reuben appears no worse than his brother tribes: All were equal in unbelief.
The revolt of Dathan and Abiram, men of Reuben, against the authority of Moses (Numbers 16:1) and possibly against the special position of Levi may be significant. Reuben may be claiming his old primacy, forfeited by sin (Genesis 49:3-4). The attempt failed, and God’s judgment was an important lesson (Numbers 16:33).
Reuben was rich in herds of cattle (Numbers 32:1) and was presumably a powerful tribe. Reuben, Gad, and the half- tribe of Manasseh asked to remain in the richly timbered and well-watered lands to the east of Jordan, conquered from Sihon, the Amorite king, and Og, the ruler of Bashan. This selfish request (for it would involve no sharing in the hard fighting across the Jordan) was rightly denounced by Moses. However, on the promise of the two and a half tribes bearing the brunt of the fighting for their brothers in the west, their request was granted (32:20-22). They were evidently good soldiers, and Joshua sent them home at the end of the campaign (Joshua 22:1-6). Although living east of the Jordan, and separated from their brothers by what was sometimes an insuperable natural obstacle, they had no desire to form an independent state. They showed this by building a great memorial altar at the spot where they crossed the Jordan on their way home (22:10).
Reuben does not appear again until the time of Deborah the prophetess. When the clans of Israel rallied to God’s call under Barak to fight Sisera the Canaanite, Reuben did not respond. The wording suggests that Reuben once again was influenced by material possessions, as the tribe had been in the days of the Conquest, when, because of their cattle, they chose the lush lands of Transjordan rather than the rugged hills of Canaan (Numbers 32:5). The easy shepherd’s life appealed more to them than warfare on the slopes of Matthew Tabor (Judges 5:16). Also the wording suggests long inconclusive discussions-or even, perhaps, great protestations of bravery and fidelity to God’s cause-that finally led to nothing (5:15). Reuben has not changed; the tribe, like its ancestor, was still “unstable as water” (Genesis 49:4).
Reuben’s tribal lands, to the southeast of Gad, were probably overrun and occupied by the Moabites at a later date. Certainly the whole area to the east of the Jordan was an area of contention between Israel and Aram later (1 Kings 22:3). Finally, Transjordan, with the north of Israel, was one of the first areas overrun and devastated by the Assyrians (2 Kings 15:29). Although Ezekiel, in his vision, speaks of a strip of territory north of Judah for Reuben (Ezekiel 48:6), it could only have been a small remnant, if any, that returned from the exile of the northern kingdom. Indeed, although Reuben finds his place in the list of the redeemed in Revelation (Revelation 7:5), no man of Reuben plays a part in the New Testament.
SIMEON
This is one of the 12 tribes of Israel descended from Jacob’s second son. Because of Simeon’s evil deed at Shechem, Jacob foretold that Simeon’s descendants would be dispersed among the other tribes of Israel (Genesis 49:7).
According to the book of Joshua, Simeon’s inheritance was included in Judah’s territory (Joshua 19:1, 9). Judges 1:3 points to a close bond between the tribes of Simeon and Judah-they march and fight together as brothers to establish themselves in Canaan. In addition, the list of Levitical towns included Simeon’s with Judah’s (Joshua 21:9-16). Inevitably, then, the Simeonites were linked to the kingdom of Judah throughout the period of the monarchy, and its tribal destiny was tied to that of the southern division of the divided monarchy. However, in spite of their minor inheritance within Judah’s tribe, the Simeonites were able to preserve to some extent their own tribal identity, unity, and traditions, as indicated by the keeping of genealogical records, even to the days of Hezekiah, king of Judah (1 Chronicles 4:24-42).
During Hezekiah’s reign, Simeonites took possession of and settled the Arab areas of Seir (1 Chronicles 4:24-43) and perhaps the hill country of Ephraim (2 Chronicles 15:9). Although Simeon was Jacob’s second-oldest son, his progeny never achieved a position of prominence in Israel, either before or after the conquest and occupation of Canaan. For example, the tribe apparently provided no judges, and the Song of Deborah contains no references to this group (see Judges 5). According to 1 Chronicles 4:28-33, Simeon’s tribe settled in the southern extremes of Canaan (called the Negev in Hebrew)-an extensive region, consisting largely of dry, parched land, but with an annual rainfall and perennial springs that ensured fertility in the early summer. This explains why Simeon’s territory is also called “the Negev of Judah,” a phrase that serves to differentiate them from other racial groups occupying parts of southern Canaan (1 Samuel 27:10; 2 Samuel 24:7).
The genealogies of the Simeonites reveal a certain amount of intermarriage with other Israelite tribes as well as with non-Israelites. Shaul, Simeon’s son, was the son of a Canaanite woman (Genesis 46:10; Exodus 6:15). Two of Simeon’s sons bear names of Ishmael’s sons (Genesis 25:13-14; 1 Chronicles 1:29-30), and Jamin was a descendant of Ram (2:27).
In the New Testament, Simeon’s tribe appears seventh in the list of the tribes who are sealed by God (Revelation 7:7).
LEVI
Israelite tribe taking its name from the third son of Leah and Jacob (Genesis 29:34). The meaning of the name (“attached”) is a pun on Leah’s position as an unloved wife: now that she has borne three sons to Jacob, surely he will be “attached” to her. Elsewhere, by a similar pun, the tribe of Levi is described as “attached” to Aaron (Numbers 18:2).
Levi appears with Simeon at the treacherous slaughter of the inhabitants of Canaanite Shechem (Genesis 34:25-29). This brings Jacob’s rebuke at the time (34:30) and his deathbed curse (49:5-7), foretelling that the descendants of Levi and Simeon will be scattered throughout Israel. This does not seem a likely background for God’s priestly tribe, but so it proved to be, for it was as a tribe of priests that Levi was scattered through Israel, while Simeon merely melted into the desert south of Judah.
At first Levi was apparently a “secular” tribe like any other. True, Moses and Aaron were of Levi (Exodus 2:1), but no stress is laid on this. Levi’s later position was God’s reward for its costly faithfulness when Israel rebelled against God (Genesis 32:25-29); this inaugurated the “covenant with Levi” (Numbers 18:19). Henceforth the tribe of Levi would be accepted by God instead of Israel’s firstborn sons, who belonged to him by the law of “firstfruits” (3:11-13). Levi, as a tribe, could therefore own no tribal territory: God himself was their inheritance (Numbers 18:20). However, they were given 48 villages, with their pasturelands, in which to live (Joshua 21:1-42). These included the six cities of refuge (20).
Since Levi could not amass wealth, the tribe was to be supported by gifts and tithes (Numbers 18:21); like the widow, orphan, and stranger, they were commended to the care of God’s people (Deuteronomy 14:29). Since they were God’s tribe, Joab was unwilling to include Levi in David’s census (1 Chronicles 21:6; compare Numbers 1:49). Naturally, Levi did not serve in war except in a religious capacity (2 Chronicles 20:21). Their service pertained to the meeting tent (Numbers 1:50-53) and later the temple (1 Chronicles 23:25-32). Within Levi the Bible makes a clear distinction among:
1. the high priest (sometimes merely called “the priest,” 1 Samuel 1:9), who came from one branch of Aaron’s family;
2. the rest of the priests, also of particular families; and
3. a mass of subordinate Levites, who had lesser tasks. In early days they packed and moved the portable tent of meeting (Numbers 1:50-51), as well as did other duties; in later days they served as porters and choristers (1 Chronicles 16:42).
The duties of Levi are summarized in Deuteronomy 33:8-11, where oracular guidance and theological instruction are just as important as their priestly duties. It is therefore no surprise that Jehoshaphat later used them as teachers of law (2 Chronicles 17:7-9). Nevertheless, the ordinary Israelite thought of them primarily as priestly (Judges 17:13).
Later references to the lasting covenant with Levi are found in Jeremiah 33:20-26 and Malachi 3:3-4. Members of the tribe returned from the exile (Ezra 2:36-42), apparently more coming from the priestly than the wider Levitical section. Barnabas, in New Testament days, belonged to the tribe of Levi (Acts 4:36). Indeed, among modern Jews, wherever the surname Levy is found, a member of the tribe probably lives on.
JUDAH
Geographical Territory
Second Kings 23:8 describes Judah as extending from Geba to Beersheba: Geba is about eight miles north of Jerusalem, and Beersheba about forty miles south. Judah thus held a strip of mountain land on the central spine of southern Palestine, about fifty miles from north to south and twenty miles from east to west. Of this one thousand square mile area, half was desert (on the south and east); the rest was stony and not well watered. The central ridge, on which sits Jerusalem, Hebron, and Beersheba, rises to over three thousand feet in places before tapering off into the desert in the south. The main road runs along the ridge, connecting these towns. To the east, the ridge drops steeply to the Dead Sea, nearly five thousand feet below. To the west it drops less sharply to the “lowlands,” actually a plateau some one thousand feet high, before descending to the Philistine plain, which stretches to the sea.
Judah, before Jerusalem was added, was remote and secure in its hills. Its true center and capital was Hebron, 3,500 feet up. On the north it was vulnerable to attackers marching south along the ridge road. However, three great valleys led up from the western lowlands into the hills: the valley of Ajalon, the valley of Sorek, and the valley of Elah. Battles raged up and down these valleys from the days of Joshua to the time of David and long afterward. The few roads to the east (the one from Jerusalem to Jericho is the best known) were not so important, although it was by this “back door” that Joshua had invaded the hill country (Joshua 10:9). Judah was thus geographically well out of the mainstream of Israelite life, since only the territory of Simeon lay to the south.
The area occupied by Judah can easily be divided into three natural regions: the central mountain ridge, which was fairly densely settled, especially on its western side, where rainfall and dew were greatest; the eastern slopes, almost uninhabited and mostly desert; and the southern region around Beersheba, where the mountains fall away into dry prairie, with sparse settlement throughout.
Economic Life
To Israel, Palestine was a land flowing with milk and honey (Numbers 13:27). Half of Judah might be desert, but the rest had reasonably good soil, and on the western slopes the rain was usually adequate. Wheat, barley, olives, figs, and especially vineyards, grew freely. The land might be stony, but stones could be collected and used for walls and buildings. Not as rich as the great northern valleys like Jezreel, Judah was still good mixed farming country, although it required hard work. Sheep and goats were plentiful, and that meant wool and milk. Cattle were probably rarer; Judah was not cattle country like Bashan (Numbers 32:1). Wool meant cloth, and hide meant leather. In those days the hills were forested, which meant fuel and building materials. Clay for pottery was readily available for domestic utensils. Copper came from Edom in the south, and iron from Philistia in the west; the Israelites could obtain these by trading their produce. Whether they realized it or not, God had dealt graciously with the people of Judah in giving them adequate resources. Nonetheless, the climate was bracing: a cold, wet winter, with snow and hail at times, and a long, rainless summer, with low humidity and cool nights. This brought heavy dews on the eastern slopes (Judges 6:38), and precious rainwater was conserved in rock-hewn cisterns (Jeremiah 2:13). Permanent streams did not exist in Judah, but springs or “wells” were abundant, from Jerusalem to Beersheba. It was not until Judah got caught up into the economic life of Solomon’s trading empire that its simple pattern of life changed; even then, the change was far less than elsewhere. Judah had no seaport of its own and controlled no rich travelling routes. It had no rare raw materials, like the copper of Edom or the cedars of Lebanon; no luxury goods for trade, like the purple dye of Phoenicia or the gold of Ophir; no lush land to tempt the greed of others. In God’s mercy Judah was exposed to fewer temptations than other countries. Its faith was also less liable to be corrupted: few Canaanites had ever settled in this area.
History and Significance
The earliest blessings on Judah are recorded in Genesis 49:8-12 and Deuteronomy 33:7. After Israel’s exodus from Egypt, the tribe of Judah took first place in the desert camping arrangement (Numbers 2:3). Caleb, one of the two faithful spies, was a tribal chieftain of Judah (Numbers 13:6). In Joshua’s invasion of Palestine, the lands allotted to Judah were the first to be cleared of Canaanites, after the initial fighting around Jericho and Ai (Joshua 6 ; Joshua 8).
After Joshua’s death, Simeon and Judah continued the fight against the Canaanites and marched together against the hill country of the south, led by Caleb and Othniel. Although God’s gift to Judah had been the whole land westward as far as the sea, Judah failed to take anything but the hills. The plain was controlled by iron-protected chariots and fortress cities. The king of Jerusalem was killed and Jerusalem was burned (Judges 1:8), but the Jebusites continued to occupy the area until David’s day (Judges 1:21). The men of Judah, like other Israelites, occasionally burned Canaanite towns, but they did not usually occupy the old sites themselves. During the time of the judges, the tribe of Judah was still isolated. In the great battle against Sisera, Judah is not even mentioned (Judges 5). But the tribe’s isolation was ended after several Philistine invasions from the West, and especially after David captured Jerusalem and made it Judah’s capital. Although in Judges 15:11 the men of Judah are prepared to hand over Samson to the Philistines, everything changed during the time when Samuel was judge. The ark was returned to Judah (1 Samuel 7:1); lost territory was regained (1 Samuel 7:14). Indeed, Samuel’s sons were judges in Beersheba (1 Samuel 8:2), although they were corrupt.
David finally broke the power of the Philistines in a series of victories, and became king, first in Hebron, the chief town of Judah (2 Samuel 2:1-4). When he was crowned king of all Israel, however, he moved the capital to the newly conquered Jerusalem (2 Samuel 5:6-10). Here the ark was brought (2 Samuel 6), and here Solomon built the temple (2 Samuel 7:13). After this time, all God’s promises clustered around Jerusalem, the temple, and “the house of David,” or David’s descendants. Most important, the Messiah would come from Judah (Genesis 49:10).
The division between the northern and southern tribes had begun in David’s lifetime, after Absalom’s revolt (2 Samuel 20:1). The rift became complete after Solomon’s death (1 Kings 12:16). For two hundred years, until the fall of the northern kingdom in 722 BC, there were two little kingdoms side by side: a larger one in the north and east, called Israel (the “ten tribes” of 1 Kings 11:35), and a smaller one in the south, called Judah. With this, the history of Judah as a tribe virtually comes to an end, for this little kingdom was really a “Greater Judah.” It contained not only the old tribe of Judah but also the newly conquered territory of Jerusalem, some of the old Philistine country, and the tribes of Benjamin and Simeon, as well as many Levites (2 Chronicles 11:14) and other Israelites from the north who remained loyal to the southern kingdom after the two were split. Indeed, from this point on, “tribe” had far less meaning than before; where a person lived was more important than the tribe he or she came from. For 250 more years the little kingdom of Judah lived on. Even after the exile, when Nehemiah led some of the Israelites to reclaim their old land and ways, it was the tiny province of Judah that emerged (Nehemiah 1:2-3), and Judea still remained as a district in New Testament days (Luke 3:1). In fact, the vast majority of later Jews were of the tribe of Judah; the very name “Jew” comes from that name. But the chief glory of the tribe of Judah, now as ever, was that the family of David sprang from it. When Jesus Christ was born, he came from David’s line and Judah’s tribe. So it is that in Revelation 7:5, when twelve thousand people are sealed from each tribe, Judah is named first in the list, as it was in Numbers (Numbers 2:3) so long before.
ZEBULUN
Zebulun was the tenth son of Jacob. Zebulun was the sixth borne to him by Leah (Genesis 30:19-20). His tribe was divided into three clans named after his three sons: the Seredites, the Elonites, and the Jahleelites (46:14).
The territory given to Zebulun’s tribe was in central Canaan. It included the valley of Jezreel. But the boundary lines given in Joshua 19:10-16 are difficult to trace because only the tribe’s southeastern and eastern borders are indicated. The western border on the Mediterranean side is not clearly defined. In the blessing of Moses (Deuteronomy 33:18-19), Zebulun, along with Issachar, “shall draw out [literally, suck] the abundance of the sea.” That would seem to indicate that Zebulun would have access to the Mediterranean Sea and therefore to the mercantile and maritime trade.
The boundary details, however, do not bring Zebulun in touch geographically with the sea. This appears to be a contradiction with Genesis 49:13. But this reference may not imply actual contact with the Mediterranean. Zebulun’s position did enable it to profit by maritime trade because the great caravan route to the sea passed through its territory. In addition, Zebulun’s “lot,” with its fruitful fields and valleys, ensured olive groves, vineyards, and splendid harvests. In 1 Chronicles 12:40 the tribe was able to provide rich supplies for David. Throughout the centuries the tribe maintained its identity.
The tribe of Zebulun held a strong position among its tribal neighbors around Galilee. The tribes of Asher and Naphtali continued to live among the Canaanites (Judges 1:32-33). The Canaanites, however, were a minority in Zebulun. Throughout the period of the judges the tribe was very active. For example, the victorious army in the battle of Kishon was composed of men of Zebulun and Naphtali (4:6-10). In the Song of Deborah, Zebulun is praised as a people that puts its life in jeopardy to the point of death (5:18). According to 6:35, the men of Zebulun took part in Gideon’s struggle with the Midianites on the plain of Jezreel. They fought with outstanding bravery. The judge Elon belonged to the tribe of Zebulun (12:11-12). Since Galilee was in the territory of Zebulun (Joshua 19:15), Ibzan of Bethlehem was probably also a Zebulunite. Other references point to the strength and importance of Zebulun’s tribe. During the united kingdom period, Zebulun’s fighting force was the largest of the western tribal armies that fought under King David (1 Chronicles 12:33).
In the New Testament there are two references to Zebulun. The first notes Zebulun as a region into which Jesus, the great light, made an appearance (Matthew 4:13-15). The second mention of Zebulun appears in the list of the twelve tribes in Revelation 7:8 after Issachar.
ISSACHAR
The descendants of Issachar, one of the twelve sons of Israel, were considered the tribe of Issachar. The land allotted to them in Canaan is also known as the territory of Issachar, defined in Joshua 19:17-23. On the east the boundary of this territory ends at the Jordan River. The area can be located by the list of towns included in the inheritance, such as Jezreel, Chesulloth, Shunem, Anaharath, Kishion, Remeth, and En-gannim. Jezreel and En-gannim are in the southeast corner of the valley of Jezreel; Chesulloth is just west of Mount Tabor; and Shunem is at the foot of the hill of Moreh. The northern border of Issachar can be deduced from the southern boundaries of two other tribal areas of Zebulun and Naphtali (Joshua 19:10-12, 33-34). All three areas-Issachar, Naphtali, and Zebulun-met at Mount Tabor. On the south side there were some major towns not conquered in Joshua’s time (Judges 1:27) that were taken from Issachar and given to Manasseh (Joshua 17:11). These towns included important centers such as Beth-shan, Ibleam, and Tanaach.
DAN
Dan was an Israelite tribe named for the fifth son of Jacob (also called Israel). The tribe of Dan, descended from Dan’s only known son, Hushim (“Shuham” in Numbers 26:42-43), had little distinction in its early years. Some Danites are mentioned in Old Testament narratives: Oholiab, a craftsman of the tabernacle (Exodus 31:6; 35:34; 38:23); another whose mother married an Egyptian and who blasphemed God (Leviticus 24:11); and Ahiezer, chief prince of Dan during the Exodus (Numbers 1:12).
Dan was the second largest tribe at the first census taken in the wilderness (62,700 warriors—Numbers 1:38-39). They were instructed to camp on the north side of the Israelites’ camp along with Asher and Naphtali (2:25-31), and were to bring up the rear in the marching line (2:31; 10:25). At the second census 40 years later just before entering the Promised Land, they had grown only to 64,400 (26:42-43), still second in size. However, the tribe does not stand out in the stories of the Hebrews’ conquest of Canaan (Joshua 1–24). Dan is listed among the tribes who reminded Israel of the covenant curses at Mount Ebal (8:30-33). The tribe is called a “lion’s whelp” in Moses’ blessing (Deuteronomy 33:22).
One of the most significant references to Dan’s tribe is the account of its northward migration (Joshua 19:40-48). The Danites had been allotted a portion of Canaan between Judah and Ephraim bordering the Mediterranean Sea (19:40-46; Judges 5:17), but were unable to occupy their territory except for the valley at Zorah and Eshtaol (13:25; 18:2). As a result, a group of Danites, discouraged with their situation, marched north and captured Laish, located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of the Sea of Galilee and just below Israel’s northernmost border. Laish was renamed Dan at that time (18:27-29). Their association with that northern territory eventually gave rise to the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (20:1; 2 Samuel 3:10) as designating Israel’s northern and southern borders.
The group that had remained in the south, however, continued for some time, as illustrated in the exploits of Samson of the tribe of Dan (Judges 13–16). Evidently the southern Danites gradually merged into the tribe of Judah, and no historical reference to the southern Danite tribe is made in the rest of the Old Testament. The Danites were mentioned in King David’s time as mustering a considerable army loyal to David (1 Chronicles 12:35; 27:22).
The Danites were among the tribes who did not drive the Canaanites from their territory to recover their land as God commanded them (Joshua 13:4-5). Joshua had to prod them into the task at the Shiloh assembly (18:1-4; 19:40-48). Eventually, the Danites gave up the effort and sought other lands in the north, where conquest was easier. Their disobedience went even further when they set up not only an idol but also a rival priesthood to this idol (Judges 18:30-31). At the division of the Israelite kingdom, King Jeroboam of the northern kingdom of Israel chose the city of Dan as one of the idol shrines in which to set up the golden calves (1 Kings 12:28-29). The Danites’ lack of obedience continued throughout their history (2 Kings 10:29), and because of it they were eventually carried into captivity with the other tribes to Assyria (17:1-23).
The tribe name is mentioned in the prophet Ezekiel’s idealized description of the restored land and Jerusalem (Ezekiel 48:1-2, 32). In the New Testament, the apostle John omitted the tribe from a list of Israel’s tribes (Revelation 7:4-8).
GAD
The Gadites were the descendants of Jacob’s seventh son Gad (Genesis 30:11), and eighth largest of the twelve tribes that came out of Egypt with Moses (Numbers 1:1-3, 24-25). They raised livestock and had a reputation for being fierce in battle (Numbers 32:1).
While the Israelites wandered in the wilderness, the Gadites were led by Eliasaph’s son, Deuel (Numbers 1:14; 2:14). When the nation made camp, Gad was located south of the tabernacle behind the tribes of Reuben and Simeon (2:14-15). They were mentioned at the tribal offering to the tabernacle, and after the plague, which God brought upon Israel (7:42-47; 26:15, 18). Maki’s son Geuel represented the tribe as one of the twelve spies sent by Moses into Canaan (13:15).
As the Israelites entered Canaan, the tribes of Gad and Reuben requested permission to settle east of the Jordan River, for it had good pastureland (Numbers 32:1-2). This was permitted on the condition that they would still help in the conquest of Canaan (see also Joshua 1:12-18).
During the conquest under Joshua, Gad is mentioned only at the battle of Jericho (Joshua 4:12). After the end of the conflict, Gad, Reuben, and the half-tribe of Manasseh settled their land east of the Jordan (12:6; 13:8).
Gad’s inheritance was between Manasseh’s tribe to the north and Reuben’s to the south. The Arabian Desert formed its eastern border and the Jordan River its western. There seem to have been no fixed borders between the two and a half tribes, and the whole area was often referred to as Gilead and Bashan (2 Kings 10:33). Its land ran north to the Sea of Chinnereth (or Sea of Galilee), but among the mountains it seems to have run eastward only as far as the Jabbok River. To the south, the cities of Aroer and Heshbon marked the southern border (Deuteronomy 3:12-13).
The history of Gad from beginning to exile was closely tied with its two neighboring Hebrew tribes. Shortly after returning to their lands, these two and a half tribes almost started a civil war by erecting a large altar (Joshua 22:10-34). During the time of the judges, Gilead (including Gad) was threatened, if not occupied, by the Ammonites until they were defeated by Jephthah (Judges 11 ). Some Gadites joined David at Ziklag during his exile (1 Chronicles 12:14, 37). In the fourteenth year of David’s reign, the two and a half tribes were formally brought together under an overseer named Jerijah (and his brothers, 26:30-32).
During the time of the divided kingdom, the tribes east of the Jordan were constantly under attack. During Jehu’s reign (841-814 BC), Hazael annexed all the land east of the Jordan, and they were later carried off into captivity by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 Kings 15:29). As a result, the Ammonites occupied Gad’s land (Jeremiah 49:1).
After the Hebrews returned from their exile, Gad is mentioned only once-in Ezekiel’s vision of the restoration of Israel (Ezekiel 48:1, 27-28, 34). In the New Testament, Gad is mentioned only in the book of Revelation, in the list of the tribes sealed by God (Revelation 7:5).
ASHER
An Israelite tribe that inhabited the fertile coastal territory of the Promised Land, Asher’s land stretched north of Mount Carmel to a point slightly above the city of Sidon. The eastern boundary ran along the western slopes of the hills of Galilee (Joshua 19:24-34). The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali were Asher’s eastern neighbors. The Carmel mountain range was a natural barrier between Asher and the tribe of Manasseh to the south. The land of Asher was agriculturally rich and is still known for its olive groves. Economically, the people of Asher joined in sea trade with the Phoenicians of the city of Tyre.
As a tribe, Asher fluctuated in size. From the few who entered Egypt with their father, Jacob, the tribe grew to 41,500 adult warriors at Mount Sinai (Numbers 1:40-41). At the second census in the wilderness the tribe numbered 53,400 soldiers (26:47). At the time of King David the number varied from 26,000 to 40,000 warriors (1 Chronicles 7:40; 12:36). Asher was never more than fifth in size among the tribes of Israel.
The tribe joined the rest of Israel in rejecting Caleb and Joshua’s optimistic report about the land of Canaan (Numbers 13:30–14:10). As a result, they wandered in the wilderness forty years (14:22-25).
Joshua later gave the remaining seven tribes their own territory (Joshua 18:2). The fifth part went to Asher’s descendants. Earlier, Ahihud had been chosen by God to distribute land within the territory given to Asher’s tribe (34:16, 27). Certain Levites, descendants of Gershom, were given cities within its borders (Joshua 21:6, 30; 1 Chronicles 6:62, 74).
Like all the Israelite tribes, Asher was never able to possess all of its inheritance. It failed to drive out the inhabitants of Acco, Sidon, Ahlab, Achzib, Helbah, Aphik, and Rehob; Asher was then degraded and corrupted by pagan culture (Judges 1:31). The “unpossessed” territory of the Sidonians and the Phoenicians stretched along the coastal region for two hundred miles. Thus “the Asherites dwelt among the Canaanites, the inhabitants of the land; for they did not drive them out” (Judges 1:32, RSV). It is possible that Asher’s tribe, having benefited from trade with the successful Phoenicians, lost all desire to expel them from their cities.
After the death of the Israelite judge Ehud, Israel fell into the hands of Jabin, king of Canaan. When the judge Deborah stirred up Barak to marshal Israel’s forces for battle, God gave their army a great victory and saved them from their oppressor (Judges 4). After the victory Deborah complained that “Asher sat unmoved at the seashore, remaining in his harbors” (5:17). Eventually, the influence of the Phoenicians destroyed the tribe’s faith.
Little is said in the Bible of the tribe’s leadership. At first, in the wilderness, when the nation was organized at Mount Sinai, Pagiel the son of Ochran became tribal chief (Numbers 1:13; 2:27; 7:72; 10:26). But the Bible is silent from then on about Asher’s leaders. None of the judges of Israel came from Asher, and in King David’s day the tribes of Asher and Gad were left out of the list of the nation’s chief officers (1 Chronicles 27:16-22).
Nevertheless, there are some bright spots in Asher’s tribal history. The tribe answered the call of Gideon to drive out the Midianite enemy (Judges 6:1-8, 35; 7:23). They rallied with the rest of the tribes of Israel to defend Saul, their first king (1 Samuel 11:7). Later, forty thousand Asherites sided with David to give him Saul’s kingdom (1 Chronicles 12:23-36). After the fall of Samaria in 722 BC, a small group came to Jerusalem to observe the first Passover feast in many years (2 Chronicles 30:5), when King Hezekiah (715-686 BC) invited all the tribes to assemble for the Passover (30:10-11).
In the New Testament, one of Asher’s descendants is mentioned, an eighty-four-year-old widow named Anna, a prophetess. She described Jesus as “the redemption of Jerusalem” when he, as a baby, was dedicated to the Lord in the temple (Luke 2:36-38).
NAPHTALI
Naphtali was the name of one of the twelve tribes of Israel that migrated from Egypt to Canaan, ultimately settling in the high country of Galilee.
During the period of the Israelite exodus from Egypt, Naphtali’s tribe is mentioned only incidentally. Acting as the leader of the tribe, Ahira helped conduct the census of Naphtali as Israel prepared for war (Numbers 1:15). The first census records 53,400 men ready for war (Numbers 1:42-43), whereas a later census, taken near the end of their desert sojourning, records 45,400 men capable of battle (Numbers 26:48-50). When Moses sent the twelve spies to search out the land of Canaan, Nahbi represented Naphtali’s tribe (Numbers 13:14). Other significant activities involving Naphtali’s tribe during the wilderness wanderings include the position of encampment around the tabernacle in the desert (Numbers 2:29); the distribution of the land, in which Pedahel represented Naphtali in the ceremony of choosing lots (Numbers 34:28); and the ratification of the covenant at Shechem (Deuteronomy 27:13). Finally, like the rest of the tribes, Naphtali was the recipient of a blessing from Moses (Deuteronomy 33:23).
The tribal inheritance of Naphtali was located on the eastern side of upper Galilee, bordered on the south by Zebulun and on the west by Asher (Joshua 19:32-39). Within its borders were several Levitical cities (Joshua 21:6) and a city of refuge, Kedesh (Joshua 20:7). Though they successfully occupied the region, the Naphtalites did not initially drive out the Canaanites (Judges 1:33). They did, however, subjugate the inhabitants of the Canaanite cities of Beth-shemesh and Beth-anath to forced labor. As a result of their location, they were involved in some major conflicts with the existing population and foreign invaders. The most significant of these was the war with Jabin, king of Hazor. Barak, from Kedesh in Naphtali, joined Deborah the prophetess, and together they led the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali against the Canaanites (Judges 4-5). Along with the tribes of Asher, Zebulun, and Manasseh, the tribe of Naphtali was also called by Gideon into battle against the Midianites (Judges 6:35).
During the united monarchy, the tribe of Naphtali sent troops to Hebron, demonstrating their support of David’s kingship over all of Israel (1 Chronicles 12:34). Naphtali’s continued allegiance to the Davidic dynasty is seen in their support of Solomon’s administrative system. Ahimaaz of Naphtali’s tribe was one of twelve officers who administered the various regional districts for the king; this same Ahimaaz also married Basemath, the daughter of Solomon (1 Kings 4:15).
The history of the tribe during the divided monarchy is sketchy, and references to Naphtali occur in the contexts of military conflicts. During the reign of Asa in Judah, Baasha, king of Israel, sought to build a fortress at Ramah on the central Benjamite plateau. Feeling threatened, Asa encouraged Ben-hadad of Syria to attack the northern kingdom. The Syrian monarch complied, and the brunt of his attack was felt by Naphtali’s tribe (1 Kings 15:16-24). Baasha withdrew his troops from the Benjamite plateau, only to encounter the powerful Syrian army. The other major foreign power to exert its influence in the region of Naphtali was Assyria, particularly during the reign of Tiglath-pileser III. During the rule of Pekah in Israel and Rezon in Syria, this Assyrian monarch came and captured Gilead, Galilee, and Naphtali in 732 B.C. (2 Kings 15:29).
According to the prophet Isaiah, though the Lord had made Naphtali’s land contemptible, he would make it glorious once again (Isaiah 9:1). Matthew sees the fulfillment of this prophecy in the person of Christ, who brought the message of God’s kingdom to the Jews living in the region of Naphtali’s tribe (Matthew 4:13-15). In the book of Revelation, twelve thousand members of Naphtali’s tribe are included among the sealed multitude of Israel (Revelation 7:6).
EPHRAIM
Tribe descended from the patriarch Joseph’s second son. Both Ephraim and his brother Manasseh were regarded as sons also by their grandfather Jacob and became his heirs.
Many Bible commentators think that in naming his son Ephraim (Genesis 41:52), Joseph was making a play on words based on a Hebrew root meaning “to be fruitful.” In support of this theory they note that the hill country later assigned to Ephraim’s tribe was one of the most fertile areas in Palestine, and at present is still planted with vines and fruit trees, such as olive, pomegranate, and carob. Prior to Israelite settlement, the area was wooded (Joshua 17:18). During the monarchy, wild animals still roamed there (2 Kings 2:24).
It is difficult to determine the exact limits of Ephraim’s territory, since it is often mentioned with Manasseh’s tribe. Ephraim was allotted land in the heart of Canaan, the Promised Land, between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. One half of Manasseh’s allotment formed Ephraim’s northern boundary (Joshua 16:5-9).
Ephraim became a great tribe, and its members often held prominent positions. The first census taken in the wilderness lists the total of Ephraimite soldiers as 40,500 (Numbers 1:33). After the wilderness wanderings, the number of warriors dropped to 32,500 (26:37). In Israel’s encampment around the tabernacle, Ephraim was the leader of the western camp, supported by the tribes of Manasseh and Benjamin (2:18-24).
Joshua the son of Nun, one of the 12 spies, was descended from Ephraim (Numbers 13:8, “Hoshea”). Under Joshua’s leadership, Ephraim and the other tribes conquered Canaan and received their promised inheritance (Joshua 16).
In the days of the judges, the Ephraimites felt slighted when they were not called upon to assist others in their battles. They quarreled with Gideon because of his belated invitation to help against the Midianites (Judges 8:1-6), as well as with Jephthah of Gilead, who defeated the Ammonites (12:1-6). The judge Abdon came from Ephraim’s tribe (verse 13). The idolatrous Micah (17:1), as well as the prophet Samuel, lived in Ephraim (1 Samuel 1:1). The military and political importance of the Ephraimites is reflected in the Song of Deborah (Judges 5:14), an ancient biblical poem.
Judah was Ephraim’s main rival, and even under David, that animosity was evident (2 Samuel 18; 19:41–20:22). Discontent in the north with Solomon’s rule (1 Kings 11:26-40), combined with a foolish decision by Rehoboam, Solomon’s son, brought about the division of the kingdom. The 10 northern tribes (Israel) were then ruled by Jeroboam I.
After the northern tribes seceded, the capitals of the northern kingdom—Shechem, Tirzah, and Samaria—were situated in Ephraim. The establishment of Samaria by King Omri of Israel gave the Ephraimites more direct access to the great north-south trunk road (Via Maris) through the western plain. This contact with trade routes gave the northern kingdom greater world consciousness and brought greater temptation to depart from God and his commands.
The prophets proclaimed that Ephraim and the other northern tribes would one day be reunited with the southern kingdom of Judah in the messianic kingdom (Hosea 1:11). The division introduced by Jeroboam I would be healed when a king descended from David would rule over Judah, Ephraim, and all the tribes of Israel (Ezekiel 37).
MANASSEH
Geographically, this largest of the twelve tribes of Israel was unique in having two territories, a half-tribe in each. Isolated from each other by the Jordan River valley, they developed separately. The half-tribe west of the Jordan was more important, both in Old and New Testament times, because it was the main tribe of the northern kingdom of Israel (931-722 BC) and one of the main ancestral stocks of the Samaritans.
Early History
Its families traced their origins back to Joseph’s elder son Manasseh, to Manasseh’s son Makir or grandson Gilead, or to later descendants such as Zelophehad and Jair. A fair harmony can be constructed from the biblical genealogical data in Genesis 48:5-6; Numbers 26:28-34; Joshua 17:1-3; 1 Chronicles 2:21-23; and 7:14-19, a text corrupted by several copyists’ errors. The mention of Asriel in 7:14 seems to be a copyist’s mistake; otherwise, the accounts are capable of being reconciled, even if each list preserved different data and none is complete in itself.
One year after the Exodus, Manasseh had the smallest army, according to Moses’ first census (Numbers 1:34-35). On the eve of the conquest of Canaan, after wandering thirty-eight years in the Sinai wilderness and then conquering Transjordan, it had the sixth largest fighting force, according to a second census (26:28-34)- 52,700 men.
The soldiers of the eastern half-tribe of Manasseh settled their families in Gilead, which they captured under Moses’ leadership from the Amorite king Og (Numbers 21:32-35; 32:39-42; Deuteronomy 3:1-15). Then, under Joshua, they crossed the Jordan to help the other tribes conquer Canaan (Numbers 32:1-32; Joshua 1:12-18). Subsequently, the western half-tribe received its allotment and began to settle in the central hill country (Joshua 16:1-9; 17). After the remaining tribes received their shares of land, the army from the eastern half-tribe returned home (22:1-9). En route to their families in Gilead, they helped to build an altar by the Jordan River. This act was intended to preserve national unity, but it nearly started a civil war (22:10-34).
The Eastern Half-Tribe
Moses allotted the eastern half-tribe nearly 3,000 square miles (7,770 square kilometers) of territory in three geographical regions (northern Gilead, Bashan, and Mount Hermon), but it succeeded in controlling only about 800 square miles (2,072 square kilometers)-the half of Gilead north of the Jabbok River (and south of the Yarmuk River)-despite successful initial conquests (Numbers 32:39-42; Deuteronomy 3:12-15; Joshua 13:8-13) and gradual northern expansion much later (1 Chronicles 5:23).
The territory occupied was mostly a high plateau with a mountainous center. It was watered well by rains in winter and by a heavy dew in summer. Olive trees, grapevines, and wheat thrived, and goats and sheep could find adequate pasture on the eastern slopes, which merged gradually into the desert to the east.
Prominent citizens of the eastern half-tribe included the “judges” Jair and Jephthah (Judges 10:3-5; 11:6-12 ) and David’s benefactor Barzillai (2 Samuel 19:31-39). Principal cities were Jabesh-gilead and Ramoth-gilead, a city of refuge and a Levitical city, respectively (originally in Gad-Joshua 20:8; 21:38).
The eastern territory was usually called simply “the half-tribe of Manasseh,” until David (around 1000-961 BC) made it an administrative district (1 Chronicles 27:21). Solomon (970-930 BC) divided and incorporated it into two new districts (1 Kings 4:13-14). Under Jeroboam I (930-909 BC), it joined, on equal terms, with eight other tribes and with the western half-tribe, to form a confederacy of ten tribes-the northern kingdom of Israel-in 930 BC. Syria and Assyria both held eastern Manasseh temporarily, in the ninth and eighth centuries BC (compare 2 Kings 10:32-33; 13:7 with 14:25; and 15:29 with 2 Chronicles 34:6-7). King Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 BC) of Assyria invaded the area, conquered it, deported its people, and scattered them throughout his empire (1 Chronicles 5:26; see also 2 Kings 15:29) about ten years before the rest of the northern kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 BC Most of the western Manassites who were left behind intermarried with the foreigners, began to worship pagan gods, and became ancestors of the Samaritans (17:24-41). Subsequently, the region was known as Gilead. By New Testament times, the region was partly in the Decapolis and partly in Perea.
BENJAMIN
The tribe of Benjamin was one of the smallest of the 12 tribes of Israel, made up of descendants of Jacob’s youngest son (Numbers 1:36). In the Old Testament the tribe is often referred to as simply “Benjamin.” Though small, the tribe of Benjamin played an important role in Israelite history, particularly in their conduct as great warriors (Judges 20:13-16; 1 Chronicles 12:1-2).
At the Israelite conquest of Canaan, after the tribes of Judah and Ephraim had received their territory, the first lot came to Benjamin. The tribe was allotted territory between Judah and Ephraim, a strip of land between Mt. Ephraim and the Judean hills. The southern boundary with Judah was clearly defined: through the valley of Hinnom immediately south of Jerusalem to a point north of the Dead Sea. Its eastern limit was the Jordan. Its northern boundary with Ephraim ran from the Jordan to Bethel to Ataroth-addar south of Lower Beth-horon (Joshua 18:11-20).
Benjamin’s territory extended about 28 miles (45.1 kilometers) from west to east and 12 miles (19.3 kilometers) north to south. It was hilly country, strategically located to control key passes, but with fertile hill basins. Among its hill settlements were the important towns of Jerusalem, Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gibeah, and Mizpeh (Joshua 18:21-28). Not all of its towns were immediately taken from their previous possessors; Jerusalem, for example, was in the hands of the Jebusites until David’s time. The environment bred a hardy race of highlanders, well described in Jacob’s blessing of Benjamin as “a wolf that prowls” (Genesis 49:27).
Ehud of Benjamin was one of the early judges in Canaan, a “deliverer” of the Israelites. He killed Eglon, king of Moab (Judges 3:15). Members of the tribe later helped Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera (Judges 5:14). The tribe continued to produce great men: political leaders (1 Chronicles 27:21), captains in Saul’s army (2 Samuel 4:2) and David’s army (23:29), skilled archers (1 Chronicles 8:40), and overseers in Solomon’s labor force (1 Kings 4:18).
Some of Benjamin’s descendants showed less than noble traits. Palti was one of the scouts making a bad report when the 12 spies returned from the land of Canaan (Numbers 13:1-2, 9, 31-33). The tribe as a whole displayed disobedience and a lack of consistent courage by failing to clear their land of Canaanites (Judges 1:21). Following the custom of the day, the whole tribe defended a few of their tribesmen who had sexually mistreated and murdered a concubine from another tribe (Judges 19–20). That act of gross immorality united the remaining tribes of Israel against them, and the tribe of Benjamin was almost completely destroyed. To keep the tribe from dying out, the other tribes allowed the Benjaminites to take captive several hundred women who then became their wives (Judges 21).
Benjamin’s tribe proved to be dependable in various ways. During the exodus from Egypt, it took its place in the organization (Numbers 1:11) and the army (2:22) and made its tribal offerings ( 7:60). It demonstrated remarkable loyalty to the throne, initially to Saul and his family (2 Samuel 2:8-31). Later David received its faithful support, as did his descendants, for Benjamin remained with Judah, loyal to Solomon’s son Rehoboam when Jeroboam led a secession (1 Kings 12:21-24).
Other men of Benjamin (often called Benjaminites) spoken of in the Old Testament include Cush, of whom David sang (Psalm 7:1 superscription); Jeremiah the prophet, who, though a Levite, lived within Benjamin’s tribe (Jeremiah 1 ; 32:8); and Mordecai, uncle and adviser to Queen Esther (Esther 2:5).
In the New Testament the apostle Paul made no apologies for his ancestry, twice referring to himself as a Hebrew of Benjamin’s tribe (Romans 11:1; Philippians 3:5). In his sermon at Antioch of Pisidia, Paul also mentioned Benjamin as the tribe of King Saul, in his brief account of Israel’s history (Acts 13:21). In one other New Testament reference Benjamin is named with the other 11 tribes in John’s apocalyptic vision (Revelation 7:8).
Who?
The twelve sons of Jacob the patriarch (who was also named Israel), as well as Joseph’s two sons, who Jacob adopted.
Where?
Starting in Canaan, receiving the blessing of Jacob, multiplying in Egypt, and returning to the promised land.
What?
Growing from a family into a nation.
When?
Beginning with the birth of Jacob’s sons and continuing to the present day.
Jacob
Conquest of the Land
Allotment of the Land
Family Life and Relationships
Promise
Unity
Jacob
Reuben
Levi
Simeon
Judah
Joseph
Benjamin
David
Saul